Dangling participles sound more painful than they actually are. A dangling participle is simply a type of dangling modifier, and a participle is a type of verb ending in -ing (and sometimes -ed) which must be used with care. The word ‘having’ in this sentence is a participle: ‘Having owned this dog for seven years, I would like to think that you have had a chance to observe him in many situations.’

At first glance, nothing may seem amiss, but the point of the sentence is that the person identified as ‘you’ is the one who has owned the dog for seven years; yet the sentence construction (syntax) implies that the writer is the one who has owned the dog. This confusion is remedied by explicitly referring in the modifying phrase to the second person: ‘Because you have owned this dog for seven years, I would like to think that you have had a chance to observe him in many situations.’

Here is a simpler example: ‘Flying south for the winter, I saw a huge flock of swallows.’ The modifying clause (flying south for the winter) does not modify the subject of the sentence (I). I was not flying south, the birds were.

And another classic: ‘Flitting gaily from flower to flower, the football player watched the bee.’ Please find your own solution to this one.

The cases I see most often relate to the academic writing of the students I have as clients. The culprits are most often the participles ‘considering’ and ‘focusing’. Difficulties frequently arise from the misuse of these two common participles, which often end up dangling.

E.g. ‘While still focusing on the Greeks, the Persians were also a major civilization in antiquity.’ Do you see the problem here? As the Persians built their civilization, do you think they were ‘focusing’ on Greece? That is, were they ‘looking at’ the Greeks when they were building Persia? Here is the revision the student made: ‘While still focusing on the Greeks, we must admit the Persians were also a major civilization in antiquity.’

It is easy to fall into the trap of having dangling participles (modifiers) in your work. They can be easily overlooked and reduce the clarity of your writing. The more you look at examples of dangling participles, the more you will be able to spot them and remove them from your own writing.

Contact me should you require a review of your writing. Avoid embarrassing and costly errors and communicate more effectively with Proof Perfect NZ. Email renellj@proofperfect.co.nz or call 029 1230 158.

The apostrophe (’) is one of the hardest working punctuation marks in the English language. Not surprisingly, it’s also one of the most misused. Apostrophes can be confusing even for native speakers of English, but they aren’t difficult to master if you can remember a few apostrophe rules.

Debate has raged among grammarians over some of its more esoteric uses, but the rules for its two most important functions (possession and omission) are pretty clear. Apostrophes in English serve two basic functions; they show possession, and they indicate that letters have been removed from the original words in the process of forming a contraction (omission). They are not necessary for forming plural nouns or possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, their, our, its).

1.a. Possession

This is what most of us call ‘apostrophe s’, and it is used to indicate that something or someone owns or possesses something or someone.

For example, if John owns a dog we would describe his pet like this: John’s dog. Another example: Mr Jones’s car.

Note that the apostrophe goes before the ‘s’. This is what you do with a singular noun.

When the noun is plural and ends in an ‘s’ on the end, the apostrophe goes after the ‘s’: E.g. Editors’ stress levels are dangerously high.

Use an apostrophe after the ‘s’ at the end of a plural noun to show possession. More examples: The parents’ bedroom; the Joneses’ home (the family Jones).

It is not necessary to add another ‘s’ to the end of a plural noun after the apostrophe. If a plural noun doesn’t end in ‘s’, add an ‘s’ after the apostrophe to create the possessive form. E.g. The children’s school uniforms.

Remember, a possessive noun needs an apostrophe and an ‘s at the end. If there’s already an ‘s’ there, you can just add the apostrophe. If there’s no ‘s’, you have to add both – first the apostrophe, and then the ‘s’. 

Special Cases and Variations

Some writers and editors add only an apostrophe (’) to all nouns ending in ‘s’. E.g. Mr Harris’; the class’ lunch break.  This practice is not recommended.

And some add an apostrophe + ‘s’ to every proper noun, be it Mrs Hastings’s or Mr Jones’s.

One method, common in newspapers and magazines, is to add an apostrophe + ‘s’ (‘s) to common nouns ending in ‘s’, but only a stand­alone apostrophe to proper nouns ending in ‘s’.

E.g.  The glass’s shelves;  Mr Jones’ brown shoes.

A special case is a singular noun that ends in ‘s’.  E.g. Ross’s red car.

While there are writers who add just an apostrophe to show singular possession of a name ending in ‘s’ or ‘z’. It is recommended for good grammar’s sake, to add another ‘s’. Exceptions to this rule are for biblical names and words. E.g. Jesus’.

E.g. Bill Williams’ car OR Bill Williams’s car; Mrs. Sanchez’s children OR Mrs Sanchez’ children.

To show plural possession of a name ending in ‘s’, ‘ch’, or ‘z’, form the plural first; then immediately use the apostrophe.

E.g. The Williamses’ car; the Birches’ house; the Sanchezes’ children.

1.b  Possessive Pronouns

Sometimes, however, possession does not require an apostrophe. This is when possessive pronouns are used. A pronoun is a word that stands in for a noun, such as ‘I’ or ‘you’. The possessive pronouns are my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs

All these words indicate possession, some of them end in ‘s’, but none, I repeat, none of them ever need an apostrophe. Not once, ever!

E.g. That book is hers. These magazines are ours. That DVD is yours, but its owner doesn’t want it.

2. Omission

An apostrophe has long been used to indicate that some letters have been omitted from a word. The word ‘it’s’ is an example of a contraction. That is, two words have been contracted to form one, in this case ‘it’ and ‘is’. E.g. It’s time to make a decision.

Other examples are:

They’re (they are), we’re (we are); they’ll (they will), you’re (you are); they’ve (they have); aren’t (are not).

The one exception to this rule is the contraction ‘won’t’, which is ‘will + not’.

Apostrophes can also be used to indicate that some letters have been left out of a single word:

E.g. Can’t (cannot); Jo’burg (Johannesburg).

Final Thoughts

Don’t lose the battle of the apostrophe. First, ask yourself if the word owns or possesses something. If the answer is yes, check whether it’s a noun or a possessive pronoun. If it’s a noun, it needs an apostrophe. If it’s a pronoun, disregard all urges, however strong, to put an apostrophe in it. If the word doesn’t own anything, have a look to see if there are any letters missing, and put the apostrophe where the missing letters should go. The key is to think about how the word is used and what the apostrophe is for, and you’ll be the winner.