Beware the Dangling Participle

Beware the Dangling Participle

Beware the Dangling Participle

Dangling participles sound more painful than they actually are. A dangling participle is simply a type of dangling modifier, and a participle is a type of verb ending in -ing (and sometimes -ed) which must be used with care. The word ‘having’ in this sentence is a participle: ‘Having owned this dog for seven years, I would like to think that you have had a chance to observe him in many situations.’

At first glance, nothing may seem amiss, but the point of the sentence is that the person identified as ‘you’ is the one who has owned the dog for seven years; yet the sentence construction (syntax) implies that the writer is the one who has owned the dog. This confusion is remedied by explicitly referring in the modifying phrase to the second person: ‘Because you have owned this dog for seven years, I would like to think that you have had a chance to observe him in many situations.’

Here is a simpler example: ‘Flying south for the winter, I saw a huge flock of swallows.’ The modifying clause (flying south for the winter) does not modify the subject of the sentence (I). I was not flying south, the birds were.

And another classic: ‘Flitting gaily from flower to flower, the football player watched the bee.’ Please find your own solution to this one.

The cases I see most often relate to the academic writing of the students I have as clients. The culprits are most often the participles ‘considering’ and ‘focusing’. Difficulties frequently arise from the misuse of these two common participles, which often end up dangling.

E.g. ‘While still focusing on the Greeks, the Persians were also a major civilization in antiquity.’ Do you see the problem here? As the Persians built their civilization, do you think they were ‘focusing’ on Greece? That is, were they ‘looking at’ the Greeks when they were building Persia? Here is the revision the student made: ‘While still focusing on the Greeks, we must admit the Persians were also a major civilization in antiquity.’

It is easy to fall into the trap of having dangling participles (modifiers) in your work. They can be easily overlooked and reduce the clarity of your writing. The more you look at examples of dangling participles, the more you will be able to spot them and remove them from your own writing.

Contact me should you require a review of your writing. Avoid embarrassing and costly errors and communicate more effectively with Proof Perfect NZ. Email renellj@proofperfect.co.nz or call 029 1230 158.

Know your Hyphens from your Dashes

Know your Hyphens from your Dashes

Know your Hyphens from your Dashes

There are three basic types of ‘dashes’; they have different uses and cannot be used interchangeably. Here’s how to tell the difference and use each correctly.

The Hyphen

A hyphen (-) is used to

  • separate syllables of a word when there is a line break on a page.
  • connect two words that function as a particular concept, or when linked together will form a particular modifier.

Examples:

The red-haired girl.

Low self-esteem is a common problem among students.

  • connect grouped numbers, like a phone number 09-860-5086.
  • write URLs and email addresses, such as hyphen-dash.com
  • spell out words letter by letter; for example, pandemonium is spelt p-a-n-d-e-m-o-n-i-u-m.

How to use a Hyphen

  • The hyphen does not indicate a range of numbers, like a date range, which is the job of an en-dash.
  • Adverbs ending in ‘-ly’ generally should not be hyphenated. That is, it would be grammatically incorrect to write ‘the dimly-lit room’.
  • Two or more words that collectively act as an adjective should be hyphenated when they appear immediately before the noun they modify. This helps prevent misreading and ambiguity.

Example:

The company requires ‘more experienced employees’ (more employees with experience), or does it require ‘more-experienced employees’ (employees with more experience)?

  • To type a hyphen in MS Word, for both Windows and MAC OS use the Hyphen or Dash key.

The En-Dash

The en-dash (–) is used when writing about a range of things that are related in a continuous way. It is commonly used to indicate a closed range of values such as numbers, dates, pages, scores or time.

Examples:

The 2010–2011 season was our best yet.

You will find this material in chapters 8–12.

The All Blacks beat the Wallabies 39–10 in the final game of the season.

An en-dash can also be used to indicate numbers in an open-ended range, such as ‘Hillary Mantel (1952–)‘.

Prefixes

En-dashes are also used to connect a prefix to a proper open compound; for example, pre–World War II. In this example, ‘pre’ is connected to the open compound ‘World War II’.

Special usage case: compound adjectives

When a compound adjective is formed with an element that is itself an open compound or hyphenated compound, some writers replace the customary hyphen with an en-dash. This is an aesthetic choice more than anything.

Hyphen: She is an award-winning novelist.

En-dash: She is a National Book Award–winning novelist.

How to use an En-Dash

  • The en-dash is about as wide as an uppercase N. The en dash (–) is slightly wider than the hyphen (-) but narrower than the em-dash (—).
  • There should be no space between the en-dash and the adjacent material.
  • Depending on the context, the en-dash is read as ‘to’ or ‘through’. If you introduce a span or range with words such as ‘from’ or ‘between’, do not use the en-dash.

Correct: She served as president from 2012 to 2018.

Incorrect: She served as president from 2012–2018.

  • Inserting an en-dash in MS Word:

For Mac: press ‘Option + Hyphen key’.  Word will automatically convert it to an en-dash. On some Mac keyboards, the Option key is called ‘Alt’.

For desktop PC: press ‘Ctrl + Minus’ on the numeric keypad (the number section on the far right of your keyboard). The trick will not work if you press the Hyphen key on the typewriter section of the keyboard.

For PC-laptop: since many laptops do not have easily accessible numeric keypads, the en-dash insertion is a bit trickier. Type a space followed by a hyphen like -this. Word will automatically convert the hyphen to an en-dash like –this, but you will have to go back and delete that space like–this.

The Em-Dash

Depending on the context, an em-dash (—) can be used as a substitute for a comma, colon, semicolon or brackets.

Em-dashes are commonly used to

  • indicate a break in thought or sentence structure; for example, “Will he — can he — find out the missing child?”
  • introduce a phrase added for emphasis, definition or explanation. In such cases, em-dashes work better than commas or brackets to set apart a unique idea from the main clause of a sentence: ‘Sometimes writing for pleasure — rather than for fame or money — is really quite enjoyable.’

In this way, too, an em-dash can separate an inserted thought or clause from the main clause:

‘I can’t believe how pedantic Ann is about grammar — doesn’t she have anything better to do?’

  • to substitute for part of a word left unfinished at the end of a sentence for reasons beyond the narrator or speaker’s control.

Example:

‘It was dark and silent in the woods, wet leaves occasionally brushed his arms as he crept along, and then a loud cra—’

Note that, in this case, the dash is always written solid next to the unfinished piece-of-a-word which precedes it. (If the sentence merely tails off into silence, we use, not a dash, but a suspension in the form of an ellipsis.)

  • indicate interrupted dialogue or speech.

Example:

“I reached in and pulled the taser out of my backpack —”

“No! In front of the police?” she said.

The double em-dash is used to indicate missing letters in a word, either because the material is missing or illegible, or to conceal a name:

The company and Ms S— — agreed to settle the case.

The triple em dash is used to indicate missing words:

I admire — — — too much to expose him in this article.

How to use an Em-Dash

  • The em-dash is as wide as an M.
  • Based on the style convention you prefer, either set the em-dash off with a single space on each side (AP style) or omit these spaces (CMOS). Whichever you choose, use it consistently throughout your document.
  • The em-dash is never used in place of a hyphen, after a colon or after a heading. It is not used to introduce a direct quotation, except sometimes in novels, but this is not a usage that should be encouraged.
  • When using an em-dash in combination with other punctuation, note that a question mark or an exclamation point — but never a comma, a colon or a semicolon, and rarely a period — may precede an em-dash.

Example:

All at once Simon — was he out of his mind? — raised his pistol to the captain’s head.

  • When an em-dash falls between the end of one line and the beginning of the next, you should try to ensure that the em-dash is placed at the end of the first line and not at the beginning of the second, if you can. Most word processors will not do this automatically, however, and it will require some fiddling.
  • Inserting an em-dash in MS Word:

For Mac: press ‘Option + Shift + Hyphen key’.  Word will automatically convert it to an em-dash. On some Mac keyboards, the Option key is called ‘Alt’.

For desktop PC: press ‘Alt + Ctrl + Minus’ on the numeric keypad (the number section on the far right of your keyboard). The trick will not work if you press the Hyphen key on the typewriter section of the keyboard.

For PC-laptop: since many laptops do not have easily accessible numeric keypads, the em-dash insertion is different, but luckily, very easy. Just write two hyphens with no preceding or following space like–this. Word will automatically insert an em-dash instead of the two hyphens like—this.

Tips for writing a Document Summary

Tips for writing a Document Summary

Tips for writing a Document Summary

It is possible to summarise something that one has read, such as a report; or something that one has heard, such as a lecture; or something that one has seen and heard, such as a movie. In this article, however, I will be discussing writing a document summary.

Main Purpose

A summary’s main purpose is to give the reader a brief and objective overview of a document‘s content by condensing, recapping and summing up its key points. A summary omits details, and it does not include the writer’s interpretation of the original material.

Although documents are often highly technical in nature, the goal of a summary is to communicate its content in a clear, concise and simple manner so that the information can be understood by all readers, regardless of their knowledge or expertise.

To write an effective summary, it is important to thoroughly understand the material one is working with. Take into account that a summary is not the same as a ‘conclusion’ found at the end of most documents. A good summary should not include selected examples, details, information or insights which are not relevant to the content of the document.

Certain types of document, of course, require more specialised summary techniques. This is the case, for instance, for research articles, project and technical reports, medical reports, business documents such as proposals, strategic or operational plans, and so forth.

Essential Steps

  1. Determine your focus. The first thing you should do is to decide why you need to summarise the document. If the purpose of the summary is to take notes to later remind yourself about the material, you may want to write a longer summary. However, if the purpose of summarising the document is to include it in a paper you are writing, for example, the summary should focus on how the material relates specifically to your paper.

2. Allow enough time. Before you can write about the content of a document, you have to understand it. This can often take a lot longer than most people realise. Only when you can clearly explain the content and essence of the document in your own words to someone who hasn’t read it, are you ready to write about it.

3. Skim the text first. If you try to carefully read a new document from start to finish the first time you encounter it, you’ll get bogged down in detail. As you scan, note the subheadings in your mind or jot them down or highlight them on the screen or hard copy. If there are no subheadings, try to divide the text into sections. Consider why you have been assigned the document to summarise. Try to determine what type of text you are dealing with. This can help you identify important information.

4, Read the text carefully, highlighting important information and taking notes. Underline key sentences, or write the key point of each paragraph in the margin of the hard copy or in text boxes on the soft copy. Remember to focus on the parts of the document that are most relevant to the purpose of your task.

5. In your own words, write down the main points of each section.

6. Write down the key support points for the main topic, but do not include minor detail. To write a good summary, identify what information is important and condense that information for your reader. The better you understand a subject or topic, the easier it is to explain it thoroughly and briefly.

7. Write your first draft. For the first draft, focus on content, not length (it will probably be too long). Condense later as needed.

8. Go through the process again, making changes as appropriate until you are satisfied with the summary.

9. Edit for completeness and accuracy. Add information for completeness where necessary. More commonly, if you understand the content of the document, you will need to cut redundant or less important information. Stay focused on the subject or topic, be concise and avoid generalities.

10. Edit for style. Pitch your writing to the level of your intended audience/readership. E.g. Write for an intelligent, interested audience. Expect your readers to be interested, but don’t make them struggle to understand you. Include all the important details; don’t assume that they are already understood.

11. Edit for good English usage and grammar. Ensure correct punctuation and grammar, eliminate wordiness and use specific, precise, concrete language – avoid vague references. If applicable, use scientifically accurate language and the appropriate lexicon (subject-specific terminology). Rely primarily on paraphrasing, not direct quotes.

12. Proofread and re-read what you have written. Ask others to read it to catch things that you’ve missed.

How to use the Apostrophe correctly

How to use the Apostrophe correctly

How to use the Apostrophe correctly

The apostrophe (’) is one of the hardest working punctuation marks in the English language. Not surprisingly, it’s also one of the most misused. Apostrophes can be confusing even for native speakers of English, but they aren’t difficult to master if you can remember a few apostrophe rules.

Debate has raged among grammarians over some of its more esoteric uses, but the rules for its two most important functions (possession and omission) are pretty clear. Apostrophes in English serve two basic functions; they show possession, and they indicate that letters have been removed from the original words in the process of forming a contraction (omission). They are not necessary for forming plural nouns or possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, their, our, its).

1.a. Possession

This is what most of us call ‘apostrophe s’, and it is used to indicate that something or someone owns or possesses something or someone.

For example, if John owns a dog we would describe his pet like this: John’s dog. Another example: Mr Jones’s car.

Note that the apostrophe goes before the ‘s’. This is what you do with a singular noun.

When the noun is plural and ends in an ‘s’ on the end, the apostrophe goes after the ‘s’: E.g. Editors’ stress levels are dangerously high.

Use an apostrophe after the ‘s’ at the end of a plural noun to show possession. More examples: The parents’ bedroom; the Joneses’ home (the family Jones).

It is not necessary to add another ‘s’ to the end of a plural noun after the apostrophe. If a plural noun doesn’t end in ‘s’, add an ‘s’ after the apostrophe to create the possessive form. E.g. The children’s school uniforms.

Remember, a possessive noun needs an apostrophe and an ‘s at the end. If there’s already an ‘s’ there, you can just add the apostrophe. If there’s no ‘s’, you have to add both – first the apostrophe, and then the ‘s’. 

Special Cases and Variations

Some writers and editors add only an apostrophe (’) to all nouns ending in ‘s’. E.g. Mr Harris’; the class’ lunch break.  This practice is not recommended.

And some add an apostrophe + ‘s’ to every proper noun, be it Mrs Hastings’s or Mr Jones’s.

One method, common in newspapers and magazines, is to add an apostrophe + ‘s’ (‘s) to common nouns ending in ‘s’, but only a stand­alone apostrophe to proper nouns ending in ‘s’.

E.g.  The glass’s shelves;  Mr Jones’ brown shoes.

A special case is a singular noun that ends in ‘s’.  E.g. Ross’s red car.

While there are writers who add just an apostrophe to show singular possession of a name ending in ‘s’ or ‘z’. It is recommended for good grammar’s sake, to add another ‘s’. Exceptions to this rule are for biblical names and words. E.g. Jesus’.

E.g. Bill Williams’ car OR Bill Williams’s car; Mrs. Sanchez’s children OR Mrs Sanchez’ children.

To show plural possession of a name ending in ‘s’, ‘ch’, or ‘z’, form the plural first; then immediately use the apostrophe.

E.g. The Williamses’ car; the Birches’ house; the Sanchezes’ children.

1.b  Possessive Pronouns

Sometimes, however, possession does not require an apostrophe. This is when possessive pronouns are used. A pronoun is a word that stands in for a noun, such as ‘I’ or ‘you’. The possessive pronouns are my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs

All these words indicate possession, some of them end in ‘s’, but none, I repeat, none of them ever need an apostrophe. Not once, ever!

E.g. That book is hers. These magazines are ours. That DVD is yours, but its owner doesn’t want it.

2. Omission

An apostrophe has long been used to indicate that some letters have been omitted from a word. The word ‘it’s’ is an example of a contraction. That is, two words have been contracted to form one, in this case ‘it’ and ‘is’. E.g. It’s time to make a decision.

Other examples are:

They’re (they are), we’re (we are); they’ll (they will), you’re (you are); they’ve (they have); aren’t (are not).

The one exception to this rule is the contraction ‘won’t’, which is ‘will + not’.

Apostrophes can also be used to indicate that some letters have been left out of a single word:

E.g. Can’t (cannot); Jo’burg (Johannesburg).

Final Thoughts

Don’t lose the battle of the apostrophe. First, ask yourself if the word owns or possesses something. If the answer is yes, check whether it’s a noun or a possessive pronoun. If it’s a noun, it needs an apostrophe. If it’s a pronoun, disregard all urges, however strong, to put an apostrophe in it. If the word doesn’t own anything, have a look to see if there are any letters missing, and put the apostrophe where the missing letters should go. The key is to think about how the word is used and what the apostrophe is for, and you’ll be the winner.