11 Tips for Clear and Concise Writing

11 Tips for Clear and Concise Writing

This article supplements information provided earlier in the blog ‘Eliminate Clutter and Improve your Writing’. The aim is to improve clarity and comprehension by helping you correct wordiness in your sentences and paragraphs. Concise writing delivers greater impact.

1. Eliminate redundant pairs

When the first word in a pair has roughly the same meaning as the second, choose one. Common examples of redundant pairs include the following: full and complete, each and every, end result, hopes and dreams, whole entire, first and foremost, true and accurate, always and forever, basic and fundamental, worried and concerned, anticipate in advance, joined together.

Example: For each and every toner you purchase, you receive a free ream of paper.

Revision: For every toner you purchase, you receive a free ream of paper. 

2. Delete unnecessary qualifiers

Qualifiers are adverbs that show degrees of moderation. We frequently use qualifiers that aren’t actually necessary to express our meaning (such as ‘actually’ in this sentence). They often fail to add meaning, so avoid them. By deleting unnecessary qualifiers (‘filler words’), you can eliminate one or two words per sentence. It may not seem significant, but filler words quickly add up and bloat your prose.

Common qualifiers include the following: actually, like, really, basically, probably, very, definitely, somewhat, kind of, extremely, practically. 

3. Use the shortest form of the word or phrase

Why say ‘close proximity’ if you mean ‘near’? Why say ‘conceptualisation’ if you mean ‘concept’? Using a longer form of the word can also be a trap for the unwary; you could be using the wrong word, or you may be using the word incorrectly (i.e. in the wrong context).

Many popular phrases can be replaced with single words. These phrases are commonly used in more formal writing, but they detract from, rather than add to, meaning. For example: ‘The reason for’, ‘due to the fact that’, ‘in light of the fact that’, ‘given the fact that’, and ‘considering the fact that’ can be replaced with ‘because’, ‘since’, or ‘why’. 

4. Reduce prepositional phrases

Overuse of prepositional phrases (which begin with words like ‘in’, ’for’, ‘at’, ‘on’, ‘through’, ‘over’, ‘beneath’ and ‘between’ ‒  words that indicate relations between nouns, pronouns, and verbs) can obscure the main subject and action of a sentence. Sometimes prepositional phrases aren’t necessary at all, especially when you use them (instead of an apostrophe + s) to denote possession of an object.

You could eliminate prepositional phrases by using active voice, or by substituting an adverb or a genitive (possessive form) in its place. You could also do so by eliminating nominalisations, or by deleting the prepositional phrase altogether and rephrasing the sentence. For example:

Revise ‘The lawyer responded to the testimony with vehemence’ to ‘The lawyer responded vehemently to the testimony’. 

Revise ‘The violin solo was obviously played by a maestro’ to ‘A maestro obviously played the violin solo’.

5. Use the active voice

In an active sentence, the subject (the person or thing doing the action) comes first. In a passive sentence, the order of the words is inverted ‒ the object (the thing that is receiving the action) appears at the start of the sentence, and the subject appears at the end or isn’t included at all. Starting sentences with the subject makes your writing clearer because it’s immediately obvious who or what the sentence is about. This is not to say that every sentence should start with the subject, but it does make for a more powerful sentence.

The passive voice is not a grammatical error, and it can be useful, but writing in the passive voice often leads to using more words than necessary. The passive voice should only be used in situations where there is no causality or agency (the subject isn’t making things happen or making choices). 

6. Change negatives to affirmatives

Write affirmative sentences because they are usually clearer than negative sentences and require less words. With negative sentences, your readers have to comprehend the important words in the sentence and negate them. Sentences with more than one negative are even harder to understand. 

Example: If you do not have a tertiary qualification in a subject, do not call for an interview for the teaching position.

Revision: Applicants with a tertiary qualification in a subject can call to be interviewed for the teaching position.

You will often have to change certain words when you ‘translate’ a negative sentence.

Example: The politician did not consider the region’s history.

Revision: The politician ignored the region’s history. 

7. Replace vague words with specific ones

Vague or abstract words tend to conceal your meaning. On the other hand, specific words convey your meaning exactly, without ambiguity. Simple language is usually clearer; it is more precise and concise than complex language. Identifying ineffective vague description is a matter of deciding whether your writing contains an appropriate level of detail and specificity to convey meaning precisely to your reader.

Example: The clothes we wore were smart, sort of interesting and seemed different to what we see men wearing here.

Revision: He wore a dark tailored suit and a crisp ivory cotton shirt, with a distinctly European flair. 

8. Avoid overusing expletives at the beginning of sentences

Expletives are phrases of the form it + be-verb or there + be-verb, i.e. phrases or sentences that begin with ‘There are’, ‘There is’, ‘It is’, or ‘It was’. The verb ‘to be’ is also part of many of these uninspired sentences. Such expressions can be rhetorically effective for emphasis in some situations, but overuse or unnecessary use of expletive phrases creates wordy, boring sentences. In this type of sentence, the word ‘it’ or ‘there’ acts as filler for the real subject of the sentence, and the verb is passive. The result is a sentence that doesn’t engage the reader since the subject and verb have no real meaning.

Example: There are five edicts that should be observed.

Revision: Five edicts should be observed. 

9. Keep your sentences to 25-30 words

You should keep sentences short for the same reason you keep paragraphs short: they’re easier to read and understand. It’s almost impossible to keep control of a sentence that’s over about 40 words, and it’s difficult to follow for the reader. When sentences are long, most readers will have to read the sentence at least twice to understand the presented ideas, and they may find it tedious. If you tend to write long sentences, breaking them into two or more will make your thinking clearer and your writing more effective; your readers will appreciate it too.  

10. Only explain one idea at a time

A common mistake that authors make is trying to include too much information in their sentences. For clarity, the sentence should only convey one idea at a time. More than that creates complexity and invites confusion. If you try to discuss too many factors together, they are likely to get confused or at least become confusing for the reader. Then you’ll need more (unnecessary) words to explain them. 

11. Don’t repeat yourself

Redundancy and repetition tend to go together, and both interrupt the flow of your prose, causing your reader to become distracted and annoyed. Write something once; don’t write the same idea several times, a different way each time. Don’t ramble either; stick to the topic on hand. Nor should you use more words than necessary to express an idea (viz. pleonasm) or excessively describe something.

Pay close attention to what your words signify and what tasks they accomplish. Start thinking about the words you use in terms of the function(s) they perform in the sentence. 

Final Thoughts

Concise writing helps you and your readers do more with less and stay focused on the topic. You can communicate your ideas more effectively and keep your readers’ attention longer. Sometimes the easiest way to revise a wordy sentence is to ask yourself “What do I really mean here?” and then write a new sentence; this approach can be more efficient than just tinkering with your existing sentence.

If you need help perfecting your writing, please contact Renell at renellj@proofperfect.co.nz
or M: 029 1230 158.

17 Online Resources to Help you Improve your English

17 Online Resources to Help you Improve your English

Credible and Effective Online Resources 

Learning English grammar, punctuation, spelling and vocabulary is not an easy task. Whether you want to improve your English so you can write more effectively, converse with greater clarity and accuracy, or read with deeper comprehension, here are a few websites you may wish to visit. Note that some refer to North American English grammar and language usage, while others relate to British English.

  1. British Council – Grammar and Vocabulary

This site provides a wide range of online resources. With short, clear grammar rules and a range of exercises, it is a great site for practising your English grammar skills. It is a comprehensive site that covers every aspect of reading, writing and speaking British English. Probably one of the very best sites available.

  1. Cambridge English Online

A site loaded with tools to help you learn fundamental English through fun activities. This too, is one of the best websites when it comes to learning British English. It is the website of Cambridge Assessment English (CAE), which is part of the University of Cambridge. CAE provides the world’s leading range of qualifications and tests for learners and teachers of English.

  1. EnglishGrammar.org

Whether you are a beginner learning the basics or an advanced learner trying to perfect the more complex aspects of American English grammar, this site is excellent with a great range of guides and videos. It is thorough and updated regularly. You can also download lessons or do online grammar practise sessions.

  1. Grammar Girl

Grammar Girl is both a blog and podcast that provides short, friendly tips to improve the grammar in your writing. Grammar Girl (also known as Mignon Fogarty) makes learning grammar fun and simple with memory tricks. This makes it easier to remember and use difficult grammar rules.

  1. English Club – Grammar

English Club has resources for grammar lessons, pronunciation, vocabulary, writing and many other topics. Great for beginner to intermediate levels. Some lessons have quizzes, and others have special tips that explain commonly misunderstood facts about each topic.

  1. Oxford English Dictionary’s Grammar Tips

This site provides blog-like articles that present straightforward advice on some of the trickier points of English grammar.

  1. Purdue OWL: Writing & Grammar

One of the best sites for improving your American English grammar and punctuation. The site covers an astonishing range of topics and is highly regarded, being used by everyday people, students and academics.

  1. Perfect English Grammar

A grammar website and blog written by an English language teacher. Select your grammar focus, read a description and examples, and then practise with online exercises.

  1. Grammarly Tips

This site has collected many rules, facts and tips on every possible grammar topic you can imagine. Explanations are written in a blog-like way. It’s an excellent resource for more advanced learners and is directed at native English speakers who want to improve their grammar. Therefore, the tips might be a bit overwhelming for beginner/intermediate learners.

  1. English Grammar 101

English Grammar 101 is structured like a grammar textbook. Each easy-to-understand lesson (or chapter) only covers one topic at a time, and it is followed by an online exercise section to test your understanding of the topic.

  1. Using English

This site specialises in English as a Second Language (ESL) and presents a large collection of tools and resources for students, teachers, learners and academics, covering the full spectrum of ESL, EFL, ESOL, and EAP subject areas.

  1. English Grammar Secrets

Another site where you can select a topic, read a short description of the rules and then practise with a lot of activities. It is suitable for leaning basic English at a beginner’s level.

  1. Grammar Bytes

Grammar Bytes has mini grammar lessons and exercises presented in a friendly and even entertaining way. Interactive exercises let you test your skills, and they contain easy-to-understand explanations with the correct answers. The site also posts a daily grammar workout on its Twitter account. Its focus is on American English.

  1. Education First’s English Grammar Guide

Education First offers a collection of free English learning resources. Its grammar guide is well structured and is a good starting place to learn how to use the parts of speech. The rules themselves are short and example sentences are used to show how English grammar works.

  1. English Central

Considered to be one of the best websites for learning English as a second language. The site utilises videos and encourages you to learn through online conversations and interaction. Learning is through a four-step, web-based process.

  1. BBC Learning English

This popular and comprehensive website presents a variety of superb learning exercises and incorporates videos, tests, vocabulary primers, crosswords, etc. It covers everything ‒ business English, conversational English, English for teachers, and so on.

  1. English Page

While not structured very well, English Page has some of the best American English grammar exercises you’ll find online. The exercises require you to write the answers, so you apply what you’ve learned. There’s an excellent section with grammar rules as well, with many sample sentences.

Final Words

I hope you find these sites helpful as you learn, practise, improve and perfect your English. It is important to incorporate the grammar, vocabulary and spelling you are learning into all four language skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking.

Read as much well-written English as possible, listen to good-quality English broadcasts, and watch the better-type of English-language TV shows and movies (those that do not rely on slang or vulgarity) to immerse yourself in the language. And, try to engage in conversations with people who speak the type of English you aspire to.

If you need assistance with fine-tuning and polishing your written English, contact Renell on +64 29 1230 158 or renellj@proofperfect.co.nz

Eliminate Clutter and Improve your Writing

Eliminate Clutter and Improve your Writing

Clear, strong and concise sentences are the most effective way to conveying messages to your audience, whether your work appears in print or online. Writers often fill sentences with weak or unnecessary words. Words and phrases should be deliberately selected to be fit for purpose, and any that do not enhance the meaning or context of a written piece should be culled or replaced. Retaining only the most effective words will make your writing more concise and readable. Clutter-free writing is clear writing. When editing a written piece for clarity and ‘wordiness’ (i.e., reducing the word count), the material is checked for the use of ‘Clutter’ words or phrases that contribute little or nothing to its meaning. Clutter words are either deleted or the sentences in which they appear are restructured to eliminate them. The aim is to draft more powerful sentences to better engage the reader. Clutter words include Pause or Fillers words and Weak words.

Pause or Filler Words

Pause or Filler words add no meaning to a sentence and merely ‘fill the space’. They are words we use while speaking and often occur when we are trying to think of the next thing we are going to say. While useful when we’re talking, they are not needed in your writing. Pause or Filler words are empty and simply pad the text, preventing your message from getting across clearly and effectively. Examples: so, like, really, you know, just, well. Using words such as ‘really’ and ‘very’, for example, indicate that you require a stronger adjective in your sentence. To avoid these words, research the range of alternatives that would be perfect descriptors. For instance: ‘very angry’ could be replaced with enraged, furious, livid and so forth. The replacement words are more precise, and they add nuance to the meaning of the sentence.

Weak Words

Weak words and can make your writing boring and clumsy and may distract the reader. They have no real meaning and only clog up your sentences. Often, they are inserted into your writing unconsciously because you use these words when you’re talking — but they add no value to your written material. Examples: basically, in fact, in order to, essentially, get. Filler words and Weak words may in some cases have a legitimate place in your writing, and one often see them used in colloquial dialogue, but they become a problem when they are overused to the point of distraction and annoyance. The occasional use is acceptable but when too frequent, the word loses its meaning and signals to the reader that the writer is unskilled and careless about their language.

They Detract from the Quality of your Writing

Filler words and Weak words detract from the quality of one’s writing and the problem arises, as mentioned earlier, because more often than we realise, we write how we speak. They’re easy to eliminate. All you need do is go through your writing and delete or rephrase anything that doesn’t add meaning, or which doesn’t qualify your message.  Here are a few examples:  1. There is a bird perched on top of your fence. (10 words)

There is a bird on your fence. (7 words)

 2. This is actually a very difficult situation. (7 words)

This is a difficult situation. (5 words) OR The situation is difficult. (4 words)

 3. There have been many arguments in the nursing profession about the merits of early discharge after major surgery. (18 words)

The nursing profession has frequently argued about the merits of early discharge after major surgery. (15 words and the sentence has been restructured to deliver a stronger active subject/verb.)

 

Cutting the Clutter from your Writing

 There are additional measures you can take to cut the clutter from your writing. A few are mentioned here:

  • Be modest with the modifiers you use (a modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that functions as an adjective or  adverb to provide additional information about another word or word group. It is is also known as an adjunct.)
  • Replace vague nouns and verbs with more powerful and specific words. E.g. It was an experience that really helped me learn a lot. Corrected: It was an educational experience.
  • Reduce long, convoluted clauses to shorter phrases.
  • Interrogate every word in a sentence. Check every word to make sure that it is providing something important and unique to a sentence.
  • Reduce phrases to single words.
  • Avoid redundancies (repetitious expressions or words), deleting words or phrases that unnecessarily reinforce what’s already been said. E.g. actual fact, blend together, advance forward.
  • Use active rather than passive verbs.
  • Cut empty phrases or meaningless descriptions.
  • Avoid using noun forms of verbs (a.k.a. nominalisations.)
  • Avoid the use of complicated ‘noun strings’ or ‘noun clusters’ ‒ several nouns or adjectives all in a row. E.g. draft native flora protection regulations.
  • Combine sentences. Some information does not require a full sentence and can easily be inserted into another sentence without losing any of its value.

 

 Examples of Clutter Words and Phrases

To help you strengthen your writing skills, below is a list of common fillers and other unnecessary words and phrases which can either be rephrased or deleted. 

Absolutely, Certainly, Completely, Definitely That Basically, Essentially Each and every In order At all times Commonly In the course of Has the ability to There/Here/It is… There has/have been For all intents and purposes All of the The fact that With regard/reference to Being that In the event that Point in time Currently I/we believe In my/our opinion It is important to note It is possible that It is important to note Just, Really, Very, Even As to whether Needless to say Pretty (as in pretty much) Period of time For the most part In terms of In spite of the fact that Make a … or give a …

 

 Final Thoughts

The goal of clear, concise writing is to use the most effective words. Concise writing does not always have the fewest words, but it always uses the strongest ones. Avoid fillers and other unnecessary words and phrases which can boost your word count, create clumsy sentences and make your written work appear amateurish. As a rule, more specific, well-selected words lead to more concise and powerful writing.

Contact me if you require a review of your writing. Avoid embarrassing and costly errors with Proof Perfect NZ. Email renellj@proofperfect.co.nz or call 029 1230 158.

Colons: How to Use Them Correctly

Colons: How to Use Them Correctly

If you want your written English to be more effective and elegant, you should use the colon and semicolon correctly. While they may appear to be similar, they have very different uses. In brief, the colon is used to provide a pause before introducing related information, while the semicolon is merely a break in a sentence that is stronger than a comma but not as final as a full stop

  • Do not use a colon in a complete sentence after phrases such as ‘including’, ‘such as’, and ‘for example’. Phrases like these already indicate to the reader that a list of examples will follow, there is no need to introduce them with a colon; it would be redundant.

Incorrect: New Zealand has many types of fruit, such as: apples, nashi pears and grapes. Correct: Many birds are found in New Zealand including kiwi, tui, weka and kea.

  • Do not use a colon after a preposition (such as ‘in’), or a verb, that introduces a list.

Incorrect: The medical student excelled in: surgery, diagnostics and trauma. Correct: The new law student excelled in surgery, diagnostics and trauma.

  • Do use a colon to introduce an item or a series of items, or provide an explanation, but only if its use is not contrary to rules 1 and 2 above.

Do not capitalise the first item after the colon in a list (unless it’s a proper noun). Correct Use to Introduce a List: The store carried all the items the new teacher needed: pens, paper, printer toner and folders. Correct Use as an Explanatory Tool: The cafeteria served the type of food most preferred by students: noodles.

  • A colon instead of a semicolon may be used between independent clauses when the second sentence explains, illustrates, paraphrases, or expands on the first sentence.

Correct: He got what he worked for: he really earned his retirement.

  • If the material following the colon is a dependent clause or phrase, do not capitalise the first word (unless it’s a proper noun).

Correct: He got what he worked for: a happy retirement.

  • Do use a colon when restating an idea. If the material following the colon constitutes a full sentence, you can choose to capitalise the first word or not. Some writers and editors feel that capitalising a complete sentence after a colon is always advisable. Others advise against it.

Correct: Remember the old adage: Pretty is as pretty does.

  • When two or more complete sentences follow a colon, capitalise the first word following the colon.
  • Also, capitalise the first word of a complete or full-­sentence quotation that follows a colon.

Correct: Mother announced to all present: “Mary is getting married.” Correct: The teacher gave us three rules to follow: Be on time. Work hard. Share your knowledge.

  • The colon can be used to emphasise a phrase or single word at the end of a sentence. An em-dash can be used for the same purpose.

Correct: After three weeks of deliberation, the jury finally reached a verdict: guilty.

Beware the Dangling Participle

Beware the Dangling Participle

Beware the Dangling Participle

Dangling participles sound more painful than they actually are. A dangling participle is simply a type of dangling modifier, and a participle is a type of verb ending in -ing (and sometimes -ed) which must be used with care. The word ‘having’ in this sentence is a participle: ‘Having owned this dog for seven years, I would like to think that you have had a chance to observe him in many situations.’

At first glance, nothing may seem amiss, but the point of the sentence is that the person identified as ‘you’ is the one who has owned the dog for seven years; yet the sentence construction (syntax) implies that the writer is the one who has owned the dog. This confusion is remedied by explicitly referring in the modifying phrase to the second person: ‘Because you have owned this dog for seven years, I would like to think that you have had a chance to observe him in many situations.’

Here is a simpler example: ‘Flying south for the winter, I saw a huge flock of swallows.’ The modifying clause (flying south for the winter) does not modify the subject of the sentence (I). I was not flying south, the birds were.

And another classic: ‘Flitting gaily from flower to flower, the football player watched the bee.’ Please find your own solution to this one.

The cases I see most often relate to the academic writing of the students I have as clients. The culprits are most often the participles ‘considering’ and ‘focusing’. Difficulties frequently arise from the misuse of these two common participles, which often end up dangling.

E.g. ‘While still focusing on the Greeks, the Persians were also a major civilization in antiquity.’ Do you see the problem here? As the Persians built their civilization, do you think they were ‘focusing’ on Greece? That is, were they ‘looking at’ the Greeks when they were building Persia? Here is the revision the student made: ‘While still focusing on the Greeks, we must admit the Persians were also a major civilization in antiquity.’

It is easy to fall into the trap of having dangling participles (modifiers) in your work. They can be easily overlooked and reduce the clarity of your writing. The more you look at examples of dangling participles, the more you will be able to spot them and remove them from your own writing.

Contact me should you require a review of your writing. Avoid embarrassing and costly errors and communicate more effectively with Proof Perfect NZ. Email renellj@proofperfect.co.nz or call 029 1230 158.

Know your Hyphens from your Dashes

Know your Hyphens from your Dashes

Know your Hyphens from your Dashes

There are three basic types of ‘dashes’; they have different uses and cannot be used interchangeably. Here’s how to tell the difference and use each correctly.

The Hyphen

A hyphen (-) is used to

  • separate syllables of a word when there is a line break on a page.
  • connect two words that function as a particular concept, or when linked together will form a particular modifier.

Examples:

The red-haired girl.

Low self-esteem is a common problem among students.

  • connect grouped numbers, like a phone number 09-860-5086.
  • write URLs and email addresses, such as hyphen-dash.com
  • spell out words letter by letter; for example, pandemonium is spelt p-a-n-d-e-m-o-n-i-u-m.

How to use a Hyphen

  • The hyphen does not indicate a range of numbers, like a date range, which is the job of an en-dash.
  • Adverbs ending in ‘-ly’ generally should not be hyphenated. That is, it would be grammatically incorrect to write ‘the dimly-lit room’.
  • Two or more words that collectively act as an adjective should be hyphenated when they appear immediately before the noun they modify. This helps prevent misreading and ambiguity.

Example:

The company requires ‘more experienced employees’ (more employees with experience), or does it require ‘more-experienced employees’ (employees with more experience)?

  • To type a hyphen in MS Word, for both Windows and MAC OS use the Hyphen or Dash key.

The En-Dash

The en-dash (–) is used when writing about a range of things that are related in a continuous way. It is commonly used to indicate a closed range of values such as numbers, dates, pages, scores or time.

Examples:

The 2010–2011 season was our best yet.

You will find this material in chapters 8–12.

The All Blacks beat the Wallabies 39–10 in the final game of the season.

An en-dash can also be used to indicate numbers in an open-ended range, such as ‘Hillary Mantel (1952–)‘.

Prefixes

En-dashes are also used to connect a prefix to a proper open compound; for example, pre–World War II. In this example, ‘pre’ is connected to the open compound ‘World War II’.

Special usage case: compound adjectives

When a compound adjective is formed with an element that is itself an open compound or hyphenated compound, some writers replace the customary hyphen with an en-dash. This is an aesthetic choice more than anything.

Hyphen: She is an award-winning novelist.

En-dash: She is a National Book Award–winning novelist.

How to use an En-Dash

  • The en-dash is about as wide as an uppercase N. The en dash (–) is slightly wider than the hyphen (-) but narrower than the em-dash (—).
  • There should be no space between the en-dash and the adjacent material.
  • Depending on the context, the en-dash is read as ‘to’ or ‘through’. If you introduce a span or range with words such as ‘from’ or ‘between’, do not use the en-dash.

Correct: She served as president from 2012 to 2018.

Incorrect: She served as president from 2012–2018.

  • Inserting an en-dash in MS Word:

For Mac: press ‘Option + Hyphen key’.  Word will automatically convert it to an en-dash. On some Mac keyboards, the Option key is called ‘Alt’.

For desktop PC: press ‘Ctrl + Minus’ on the numeric keypad (the number section on the far right of your keyboard). The trick will not work if you press the Hyphen key on the typewriter section of the keyboard.

For PC-laptop: since many laptops do not have easily accessible numeric keypads, the en-dash insertion is a bit trickier. Type a space followed by a hyphen like -this. Word will automatically convert the hyphen to an en-dash like –this, but you will have to go back and delete that space like–this.

The Em-Dash

Depending on the context, an em-dash (—) can be used as a substitute for a comma, colon, semicolon or brackets.

Em-dashes are commonly used to

  • indicate a break in thought or sentence structure; for example, “Will he — can he — find out the missing child?”
  • introduce a phrase added for emphasis, definition or explanation. In such cases, em-dashes work better than commas or brackets to set apart a unique idea from the main clause of a sentence: ‘Sometimes writing for pleasure — rather than for fame or money — is really quite enjoyable.’

In this way, too, an em-dash can separate an inserted thought or clause from the main clause:

‘I can’t believe how pedantic Ann is about grammar — doesn’t she have anything better to do?’

  • to substitute for part of a word left unfinished at the end of a sentence for reasons beyond the narrator or speaker’s control.

Example:

‘It was dark and silent in the woods, wet leaves occasionally brushed his arms as he crept along, and then a loud cra—’

Note that, in this case, the dash is always written solid next to the unfinished piece-of-a-word which precedes it. (If the sentence merely tails off into silence, we use, not a dash, but a suspension in the form of an ellipsis.)

  • indicate interrupted dialogue or speech.

Example:

“I reached in and pulled the taser out of my backpack —”

“No! In front of the police?” she said.

The double em-dash is used to indicate missing letters in a word, either because the material is missing or illegible, or to conceal a name:

The company and Ms S— — agreed to settle the case.

The triple em dash is used to indicate missing words:

I admire — — — too much to expose him in this article.

How to use an Em-Dash

  • The em-dash is as wide as an M.
  • Based on the style convention you prefer, either set the em-dash off with a single space on each side (AP style) or omit these spaces (CMOS). Whichever you choose, use it consistently throughout your document.
  • The em-dash is never used in place of a hyphen, after a colon or after a heading. It is not used to introduce a direct quotation, except sometimes in novels, but this is not a usage that should be encouraged.
  • When using an em-dash in combination with other punctuation, note that a question mark or an exclamation point — but never a comma, a colon or a semicolon, and rarely a period — may precede an em-dash.

Example:

All at once Simon — was he out of his mind? — raised his pistol to the captain’s head.

  • When an em-dash falls between the end of one line and the beginning of the next, you should try to ensure that the em-dash is placed at the end of the first line and not at the beginning of the second, if you can. Most word processors will not do this automatically, however, and it will require some fiddling.
  • Inserting an em-dash in MS Word:

For Mac: press ‘Option + Shift + Hyphen key’.  Word will automatically convert it to an em-dash. On some Mac keyboards, the Option key is called ‘Alt’.

For desktop PC: press ‘Alt + Ctrl + Minus’ on the numeric keypad (the number section on the far right of your keyboard). The trick will not work if you press the Hyphen key on the typewriter section of the keyboard.

For PC-laptop: since many laptops do not have easily accessible numeric keypads, the em-dash insertion is different, but luckily, very easy. Just write two hyphens with no preceding or following space like–this. Word will automatically insert an em-dash instead of the two hyphens like—this.