Eliminate Clutter and Improve your Writing

Eliminate Clutter and Improve your Writing

by | 16 Jun 2019 | Grammar, Writing Skills

Clear, strong and concise sentences are the most effective way to conveying messages to your audience, whether your work appears in print or online. Writers often fill sentences with weak or unnecessary words. Words and phrases should be deliberately selected to be fit for purpose, and any that do not enhance the meaning or context of a written piece should be culled or replaced. Retaining only the most effective words will make your writing more concise and readable. Clutter-free writing is clear writing. When editing a written piece for clarity and ‘wordiness’ (i.e., reducing the word count), the material is checked for the use of ‘Clutter’ words or phrases that contribute little or nothing to its meaning. Clutter words are either deleted or the sentences in which they appear are restructured to eliminate them. The aim is to draft more powerful sentences to better engage the reader. Clutter words include Pause or Fillers words and Weak words.

Pause or Filler Words

Pause or Filler words add no meaning to a sentence and merely ‘fill the space’. They are words we use while speaking and often occur when we are trying to think of the next thing we are going to say. While useful when we’re talking, they are not needed in your writing. Pause or Filler words are empty and simply pad the text, preventing your message from getting across clearly and effectively. Examples: so, like, really, you know, just, well. Using words such as ‘really’ and ‘very’, for example, indicate that you require a stronger adjective in your sentence. To avoid these words, research the range of alternatives that would be perfect descriptors. For instance: ‘very angry’ could be replaced with enraged, furious, livid and so forth. The replacement words are more precise, and they add nuance to the meaning of the sentence.

Weak Words

Weak words and can make your writing boring and clumsy and may distract the reader. They have no real meaning and only clog up your sentences. Often, they are inserted into your writing unconsciously because you use these words when you’re talking — but they add no value to your written material. Examples: basically, in fact, in order to, essentially, get. Filler words and Weak words may in some cases have a legitimate place in your writing, and one often see them used in colloquial dialogue, but they become a problem when they are overused to the point of distraction and annoyance. The occasional use is acceptable but when too frequent, the word loses its meaning and signals to the reader that the writer is unskilled and careless about their language.

They Detract from the Quality of your Writing

Filler words and Weak words detract from the quality of one’s writing and the problem arises, as mentioned earlier, because more often than we realise, we write how we speak. They’re easy to eliminate. All you need do is go through your writing and delete or rephrase anything that doesn’t add meaning, or which doesn’t qualify your message.  Here are a few examples:  1. There is a bird perched on top of your fence. (10 words)

There is a bird on your fence. (7 words)

 2. This is actually a very difficult situation. (7 words)

This is a difficult situation. (5 words) OR The situation is difficult. (4 words)

 3. There have been many arguments in the nursing profession about the merits of early discharge after major surgery. (18 words)

The nursing profession has frequently argued about the merits of early discharge after major surgery. (15 words and the sentence has been restructured to deliver a stronger active subject/verb.)

 

Cutting the Clutter from your Writing

 There are additional measures you can take to cut the clutter from your writing. A few are mentioned here:

  • Be modest with the modifiers you use (a modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that functions as an adjective or  adverb to provide additional information about another word or word group. It is is also known as an adjunct.)
  • Replace vague nouns and verbs with more powerful and specific words. E.g. It was an experience that really helped me learn a lot. Corrected: It was an educational experience.
  • Reduce long, convoluted clauses to shorter phrases.
  • Interrogate every word in a sentence. Check every word to make sure that it is providing something important and unique to a sentence.
  • Reduce phrases to single words.
  • Avoid redundancies (repetitious expressions or words), deleting words or phrases that unnecessarily reinforce what’s already been said. E.g. actual fact, blend together, advance forward.
  • Use active rather than passive verbs.
  • Cut empty phrases or meaningless descriptions.
  • Avoid using noun forms of verbs (a.k.a. nominalisations.)
  • Avoid the use of complicated ‘noun strings’ or ‘noun clusters’ ‒ several nouns or adjectives all in a row. E.g. draft native flora protection regulations.
  • Combine sentences. Some information does not require a full sentence and can easily be inserted into another sentence without losing any of its value.

 

 Examples of Clutter Words and Phrases

To help you strengthen your writing skills, below is a list of common fillers and other unnecessary words and phrases which can either be rephrased or deleted. 

Absolutely, Certainly, Completely, Definitely That Basically, Essentially Each and every In order At all times Commonly In the course of Has the ability to There/Here/It is… There has/have been For all intents and purposes All of the The fact that With regard/reference to Being that In the event that Point in time Currently I/we believe In my/our opinion It is important to note It is possible that It is important to note Just, Really, Very, Even As to whether Needless to say Pretty (as in pretty much) Period of time For the most part In terms of In spite of the fact that Make a … or give a …

 

 Final Thoughts

The goal of clear, concise writing is to use the most effective words. Concise writing does not always have the fewest words, but it always uses the strongest ones. Avoid fillers and other unnecessary words and phrases which can boost your word count, create clumsy sentences and make your written work appear amateurish. As a rule, more specific, well-selected words lead to more concise and powerful writing.

Contact me if you require a review of your writing. Avoid embarrassing and costly errors with Proof Perfect NZ. Email renellj@proofperfect.co.nz or call 029 1230 158.

Know your Brackets & How to Use Them

Know your Brackets & How to Use Them

by | 28 May 2019 | Punctuation

What are Brackets?

There are a few symbols that can technically be considered brackets, which are used as punctuation marks. Written English has four types of brackets and each pair of marks has its own usage rules. Here are a few to consider.

Round Brackets ( )

Round brackets ( ), also known as parentheses, especially in American English, are the most commonly used in written English.  A pair of round brackets is used when a writer wants to add information to a sentence that will give greater detail to the information presented, but which is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.

  • The round brackets separate off the information that isn’t essential; if you remove the bracketed words the sentence still makes sense.

Example: Angela agreed (after a quick call) that she would attend the party.

  • Round brackets can also be used to add a comment by the person writing.

Example: They were hoping to depart (even though the train was delayed).

In this case, the bracketed information is not part of the main subject of the sentence. 

Example: The mother (and her children) arrived for the appointment.

  • Short translations in unquoted text can be placed in round brackets.

Example: Her knowledge of French is limited to merci (thank you) and au revoir (goodbye).

  • In some works, a person’s year of birth and year of death are provided in round brackets when the person is first mentioned.

Example: Galileo Galilei (1564-642) was an Italian polymath.

Note: Words placed in round brackets can often be set off with commas instead, and in some cases, by em-dashes.

Square Brackets [ ]

Square brackets [ ] are known simply as brackets in American English, and in some instances as box brackets. They are extremely useful to writers and editors, serving a range of purposes. The most popular of which is to enclose explanatory matter that one adds in editing the work of another writer. The square brackets indicate that an alteration has been made in the original text.

  • Square brackets enclose words added by someone other than the original writer or speaker. This is usually done to clarify a point or meaning. The words that are being added to an original quote are always placed within square brackets, and not round brackets (parentheses). This tells your readers exactly how you have altered the original.

Example:

Original: He said, “I removed their equipment from the farm.”

Amended: He said, “I removed their [obsolete] equipment from the farm.”

Example: Dr Gordon [the cardiologist] was not in attendance.

  • In quoting a passage in a written piece, it is often necessary to insert information that was provided elsewhere in the original text.

Example: I have a good idea what she [J Austen] had in mind, but societal values were not as accommodating then.

  •  If it’s necessary to change the original capitalisation of a word or provide a word in order to make a quotation fit grammatically into the new text, square brackets are used.

Example:

Original: Mary was outrageous, the belle of every ball.

Quoted form: According to the society columnist, “[She] was outrageous, the belle of every ball.”

  • Use square brackets as brackets within brackets. This is often seen with bibliographic references. Example: (For more on the topic, see Longmans Companion to English Literature [2012].)
  • If the word in a quotation is archaic, colloquial or used in a sense that may not be familiar to readers, the editor may provide an explanation in square brackets.

Example: John prefers to wear undergruts [underpants] depicting cartoon characters.

  • Square brackets are also used for translations in quoted text.
  • Square brackets are used to enclose ‘sic’ and italicise it. The Latin term ‘sic’ is used to indicate that something written is intentionally left in the original form, which may be incorrect factually or in terms of spelling.

Example: The journalist wrote, “Their [sic] were seven hostages.”

  • Square brackets can be used to show the pronunciation of a word.

 Example: She mispronounced ‘ambience’ [ahm-b’enz].

Curly Brackets { }

 Curly brackets { }, or (curly) braces in American English, have limited usage in written English, mostly being used for poetry or music. They are used extensively in mathematics, physics and coding.

  • They are used when a writer wanted to create a list of items that are all equal choices.

Example: The gardening instructor said, “Gather your equipment {spade, fork, shovel, knife, shears} and follow me.”

  • They are also used in writing or printing for the purpose of uniting together two or more lines, words, staves of music, etc.

This punctation mark is not used much in ‘everyday’ writing or ‘normal’ text but does appear in technical and scientific papers and textbooks, requiring specialised writing, editing and proofreading skills.

Angle[d] Brackets < >

Angle(d) brackets < >, also known as (left and right) chevrons or carets, have very limited use in writing but are used in copy editing and in other technical applications (such as mathematics and coding).

The most common use for angled brackets is for placing URLs, email addresses and images into text. In copy editing they are used to set off highlighted material, as place markers, and to indicate certain instruction to the book designer. 

Final Thoughts

  • If brackets (round or square) are used at the end of a sentence, the full stop should be placed outside, as the final punctuation.

Example: John and his wife decided to retire to the West Coast (where their children live).

  •  When content within brackets (round or square) occurs in the middle of a larger sentence, the surrounding punctuation should be placed outside the brackets, exactly as it would be if the bracketed content were not there.

Example: We confirmed his graduation (Harvard, class of 2010), but his CV needs scrutiny.

  •  Note that all bracket types serve different purposes in mathematics, physics and computer coding.

If you require assistance in polishing your manuscript or refining your documents, please contact Renell at Proof Perfect NZ. Email renellj@proofperfect.co.nz or call 029 1230 158.

Colons: How to Use Them Correctly

Colons: How to Use Them Correctly

by | 26 May 2019 | Grammar, Punctuation

If you want your written English to be more effective and elegant, you should use the colon and semicolon correctly. While they may appear to be similar, they have very different uses. In brief, the colon is used to provide a pause before introducing related information, while the semicolon is merely a break in a sentence that is stronger than a comma but not as final as a full stop

  • Do not use a colon in a complete sentence after phrases such as ‘including’, ‘such as’, and ‘for example’. Phrases like these already indicate to the reader that a list of examples will follow, there is no need to introduce them with a colon; it would be redundant.

Incorrect: New Zealand has many types of fruit, such as: apples, nashi pears and grapes. Correct: Many birds are found in New Zealand including kiwi, tui, weka and kea.

  • Do not use a colon after a preposition (such as ‘in’), or a verb, that introduces a list.

Incorrect: The medical student excelled in: surgery, diagnostics and trauma. Correct: The new law student excelled in surgery, diagnostics and trauma.

  • Do use a colon to introduce an item or a series of items, or provide an explanation, but only if its use is not contrary to rules 1 and 2 above.

Do not capitalise the first item after the colon in a list (unless it’s a proper noun). Correct Use to Introduce a List: The store carried all the items the new teacher needed: pens, paper, printer toner and folders. Correct Use as an Explanatory Tool: The cafeteria served the type of food most preferred by students: noodles.

  • A colon instead of a semicolon may be used between independent clauses when the second sentence explains, illustrates, paraphrases, or expands on the first sentence.

Correct: He got what he worked for: he really earned his retirement.

  • If the material following the colon is a dependent clause or phrase, do not capitalise the first word (unless it’s a proper noun).

Correct: He got what he worked for: a happy retirement.

  • Do use a colon when restating an idea. If the material following the colon constitutes a full sentence, you can choose to capitalise the first word or not. Some writers and editors feel that capitalising a complete sentence after a colon is always advisable. Others advise against it.

Correct: Remember the old adage: Pretty is as pretty does.

  • When two or more complete sentences follow a colon, capitalise the first word following the colon.
  • Also, capitalise the first word of a complete or full-­sentence quotation that follows a colon.

Correct: Mother announced to all present: “Mary is getting married.” Correct: The teacher gave us three rules to follow: Be on time. Work hard. Share your knowledge.

  • The colon can be used to emphasise a phrase or single word at the end of a sentence. An em-dash can be used for the same purpose.

Correct: After three weeks of deliberation, the jury finally reached a verdict: guilty.

Voice, Perspective & Tone in your Writing

Voice, Perspective & Tone in your Writing

by | 26 May 2019 | Writing Skills

Your Voice

A writer’s voice includes their style of writing, their perspective and their tone in writing. Voice is your personality expressed in writing, while tone reflects your attitude in a piece of writing. It’s what makes your writing ‘sound’ authentic to your reader. Your voice affects how you tell the story or cover the subject matter of your literary work, and how you make a reader feel about it. Consequently, it impacts the way they experience your story or the impression they form about the topic of your written piece.

Your Style

Your style is how you choose to tell a story. It’s about the mechanics of your writing ‒ the individual word choices, the structure of sentences, use of punctuation, choice of formatting, and whether your writing is formal or informal, concise or detailed, objective (factual) or subjective (opinionated) ‒ to mention but a few.

Your Perspective

Every writer has a perspective. Perspective is not to be confused with the story’s point of view or method of narration (i.e. first person, third person). While point of view focuses on ‘who’ is telling the story ‒ who is speaking (the narrator), perspective is how you choose to view and relay what’s happening in the story ‒ how the narrator perceives the events or circumstances.

Perspective is unique to you. Each character in your story can be involved in the same event, but each will come away with a unique set of experiences or observations. Perspective is an essential component of your voice because it determines what you bring forward in the story.

Your Tone

Your tone is your attitude or feeling about the story you’re writing or the subject matter you are covering as well as your attitude or feeling towards the reader. The tone relates to the mood in a piece of writing and it may remain constant or fluctuate throughout the work. It may vary in degree of intensity or shift entirely at some point.

Your tone can be serious, dark, funny, sardonic, ironic, wistful, formal, cheerful, melancholy ‒ the whole range of human emotions. Tone serves to convey a story the way that you want it to be experienced; it gives the reader cues on how to feel about the subject matter or what’s happening in the story.

Your word choice, sentence structure, imagery, writing mechanics (such as punctuation and word styling), and how you feel about what’s happening meld to create a tone throughout your work.

Final Thoughts

Over time, your natural style will develop, as will your writer’s voice. As you read the literary works of other writers, you’ll be influenced by their styles as well. But, of course, for your style and voice to develop and fully emerge, you have to write and write and keep on writing.

Contact me should you require a review of your writing. Avoid embarrassing and costly errors and communicate more effectively with Proof Perfect NZ. Email renellj@proofperfect.co.nz or call 029 1230 158.

Beware the Dangling Participle

Beware the Dangling Participle

by | 9 Feb 2019 | Grammar

Beware the Dangling Participle

Dangling participles sound more painful than they actually are. A dangling participle is simply a type of dangling modifier, and a participle is a type of verb ending in -ing (and sometimes -ed) which must be used with care. The word ‘having’ in this sentence is a participle: ‘Having owned this dog for seven years, I would like to think that you have had a chance to observe him in many situations.’

At first glance, nothing may seem amiss, but the point of the sentence is that the person identified as ‘you’ is the one who has owned the dog for seven years; yet the sentence construction (syntax) implies that the writer is the one who has owned the dog. This confusion is remedied by explicitly referring in the modifying phrase to the second person: ‘Because you have owned this dog for seven years, I would like to think that you have had a chance to observe him in many situations.’

Here is a simpler example: ‘Flying south for the winter, I saw a huge flock of swallows.’ The modifying clause (flying south for the winter) does not modify the subject of the sentence (I). I was not flying south, the birds were.

And another classic: ‘Flitting gaily from flower to flower, the football player watched the bee.’ Please find your own solution to this one.

The cases I see most often relate to the academic writing of the students I have as clients. The culprits are most often the participles ‘considering’ and ‘focusing’. Difficulties frequently arise from the misuse of these two common participles, which often end up dangling.

E.g. ‘While still focusing on the Greeks, the Persians were also a major civilization in antiquity.’ Do you see the problem here? As the Persians built their civilization, do you think they were ‘focusing’ on Greece? That is, were they ‘looking at’ the Greeks when they were building Persia? Here is the revision the student made: ‘While still focusing on the Greeks, we must admit the Persians were also a major civilization in antiquity.’

It is easy to fall into the trap of having dangling participles (modifiers) in your work. They can be easily overlooked and reduce the clarity of your writing. The more you look at examples of dangling participles, the more you will be able to spot them and remove them from your own writing.

Contact me should you require a review of your writing. Avoid embarrassing and costly errors and communicate more effectively with Proof Perfect NZ. Email renellj@proofperfect.co.nz or call 029 1230 158.

Know your Hyphens from your Dashes

Know your Hyphens from your Dashes

by | 9 Feb 2019 | Grammar, Punctuation

Know your Hyphens from your Dashes

There are three basic types of ‘dashes’; they have different uses and cannot be used interchangeably. Here’s how to tell the difference and use each correctly.

The Hyphen

A hyphen (-) is used to

  • separate syllables of a word when there is a line break on a page.
  • connect two words that function as a particular concept, or when linked together will form a particular modifier.

Examples:

The red-haired girl.

Low self-esteem is a common problem among students.

  • connect grouped numbers, like a phone number 09-860-5086.
  • write URLs and email addresses, such as hyphen-dash.com
  • spell out words letter by letter; for example, pandemonium is spelt p-a-n-d-e-m-o-n-i-u-m.

How to use a Hyphen

  • The hyphen does not indicate a range of numbers, like a date range, which is the job of an en-dash.
  • Adverbs ending in ‘-ly’ generally should not be hyphenated. That is, it would be grammatically incorrect to write ‘the dimly-lit room’.
  • Two or more words that collectively act as an adjective should be hyphenated when they appear immediately before the noun they modify. This helps prevent misreading and ambiguity.

Example:

The company requires ‘more experienced employees’ (more employees with experience), or does it require ‘more-experienced employees’ (employees with more experience)?

  • To type a hyphen in MS Word, for both Windows and MAC OS use the Hyphen or Dash key.

The En-Dash

The en-dash (–) is used when writing about a range of things that are related in a continuous way. It is commonly used to indicate a closed range of values such as numbers, dates, pages, scores or time.

Examples:

The 2010–2011 season was our best yet.

You will find this material in chapters 8–12.

The All Blacks beat the Wallabies 39–10 in the final game of the season.

An en-dash can also be used to indicate numbers in an open-ended range, such as ‘Hillary Mantel (1952–)‘.

Prefixes

En-dashes are also used to connect a prefix to a proper open compound; for example, pre–World War II. In this example, ‘pre’ is connected to the open compound ‘World War II’.

Special usage case: compound adjectives

When a compound adjective is formed with an element that is itself an open compound or hyphenated compound, some writers replace the customary hyphen with an en-dash. This is an aesthetic choice more than anything.

Hyphen: She is an award-winning novelist.

En-dash: She is a National Book Award–winning novelist.

How to use an En-Dash

  • The en-dash is about as wide as an uppercase N. The en dash (–) is slightly wider than the hyphen (-) but narrower than the em-dash (—).
  • There should be no space between the en-dash and the adjacent material.
  • Depending on the context, the en-dash is read as ‘to’ or ‘through’. If you introduce a span or range with words such as ‘from’ or ‘between’, do not use the en-dash.

Correct: She served as president from 2012 to 2018.

Incorrect: She served as president from 2012–2018.

  • Inserting an en-dash in MS Word:

For Mac: press ‘Option + Hyphen key’.  Word will automatically convert it to an en-dash. On some Mac keyboards, the Option key is called ‘Alt’.

For desktop PC: press ‘Ctrl + Minus’ on the numeric keypad (the number section on the far right of your keyboard). The trick will not work if you press the Hyphen key on the typewriter section of the keyboard.

For PC-laptop: since many laptops do not have easily accessible numeric keypads, the en-dash insertion is a bit trickier. Type a space followed by a hyphen like -this. Word will automatically convert the hyphen to an en-dash like –this, but you will have to go back and delete that space like–this.

The Em-Dash

Depending on the context, an em-dash (—) can be used as a substitute for a comma, colon, semicolon or brackets.

Em-dashes are commonly used to

  • indicate a break in thought or sentence structure; for example, “Will he — can he — find out the missing child?”
  • introduce a phrase added for emphasis, definition or explanation. In such cases, em-dashes work better than commas or brackets to set apart a unique idea from the main clause of a sentence: ‘Sometimes writing for pleasure — rather than for fame or money — is really quite enjoyable.’

In this way, too, an em-dash can separate an inserted thought or clause from the main clause:

‘I can’t believe how pedantic Ann is about grammar — doesn’t she have anything better to do?’

  • to substitute for part of a word left unfinished at the end of a sentence for reasons beyond the narrator or speaker’s control.

Example:

‘It was dark and silent in the woods, wet leaves occasionally brushed his arms as he crept along, and then a loud cra—’

Note that, in this case, the dash is always written solid next to the unfinished piece-of-a-word which precedes it. (If the sentence merely tails off into silence, we use, not a dash, but a suspension in the form of an ellipsis.)

  • indicate interrupted dialogue or speech.

Example:

“I reached in and pulled the taser out of my backpack —”

“No! In front of the police?” she said.

The double em-dash is used to indicate missing letters in a word, either because the material is missing or illegible, or to conceal a name:

The company and Ms S— — agreed to settle the case.

The triple em dash is used to indicate missing words:

I admire — — — too much to expose him in this article.

How to use an Em-Dash

  • The em-dash is as wide as an M.
  • Based on the style convention you prefer, either set the em-dash off with a single space on each side (AP style) or omit these spaces (CMOS). Whichever you choose, use it consistently throughout your document.
  • The em-dash is never used in place of a hyphen, after a colon or after a heading. It is not used to introduce a direct quotation, except sometimes in novels, but this is not a usage that should be encouraged.
  • When using an em-dash in combination with other punctuation, note that a question mark or an exclamation point — but never a comma, a colon or a semicolon, and rarely a period — may precede an em-dash.

Example:

All at once Simon — was he out of his mind? — raised his pistol to the captain’s head.

  • When an em-dash falls between the end of one line and the beginning of the next, you should try to ensure that the em-dash is placed at the end of the first line and not at the beginning of the second, if you can. Most word processors will not do this automatically, however, and it will require some fiddling.
  • Inserting an em-dash in MS Word:

For Mac: press ‘Option + Shift + Hyphen key’.  Word will automatically convert it to an em-dash. On some Mac keyboards, the Option key is called ‘Alt’.

For desktop PC: press ‘Alt + Ctrl + Minus’ on the numeric keypad (the number section on the far right of your keyboard). The trick will not work if you press the Hyphen key on the typewriter section of the keyboard.

For PC-laptop: since many laptops do not have easily accessible numeric keypads, the em-dash insertion is different, but luckily, very easy. Just write two hyphens with no preceding or following space like–this. Word will automatically insert an em-dash instead of the two hyphens like—this.

Tips for writing a Document Summary

Tips for writing a Document Summary

by | 9 Feb 2019 | Writing Skills

Tips for writing a Document Summary

It is possible to summarise something that one has read, such as a report; or something that one has heard, such as a lecture; or something that one has seen and heard, such as a movie. In this article, however, I will be discussing writing a document summary.

Main Purpose

A summary’s main purpose is to give the reader a brief and objective overview of a document‘s content by condensing, recapping and summing up its key points. A summary omits details, and it does not include the writer’s interpretation of the original material.

Although documents are often highly technical in nature, the goal of a summary is to communicate its content in a clear, concise and simple manner so that the information can be understood by all readers, regardless of their knowledge or expertise.

To write an effective summary, it is important to thoroughly understand the material one is working with. Take into account that a summary is not the same as a ‘conclusion’ found at the end of most documents. A good summary should not include selected examples, details, information or insights which are not relevant to the content of the document.

Certain types of document, of course, require more specialised summary techniques. This is the case, for instance, for research articles, project and technical reports, medical reports, business documents such as proposals, strategic or operational plans, and so forth.

Essential Steps

  1. Determine your focus. The first thing you should do is to decide why you need to summarise the document. If the purpose of the summary is to take notes to later remind yourself about the material, you may want to write a longer summary. However, if the purpose of summarising the document is to include it in a paper you are writing, for example, the summary should focus on how the material relates specifically to your paper.

2. Allow enough time. Before you can write about the content of a document, you have to understand it. This can often take a lot longer than most people realise. Only when you can clearly explain the content and essence of the document in your own words to someone who hasn’t read it, are you ready to write about it.

3. Skim the text first. If you try to carefully read a new document from start to finish the first time you encounter it, you’ll get bogged down in detail. As you scan, note the subheadings in your mind or jot them down or highlight them on the screen or hard copy. If there are no subheadings, try to divide the text into sections. Consider why you have been assigned the document to summarise. Try to determine what type of text you are dealing with. This can help you identify important information.

4, Read the text carefully, highlighting important information and taking notes. Underline key sentences, or write the key point of each paragraph in the margin of the hard copy or in text boxes on the soft copy. Remember to focus on the parts of the document that are most relevant to the purpose of your task.

5. In your own words, write down the main points of each section.

6. Write down the key support points for the main topic, but do not include minor detail. To write a good summary, identify what information is important and condense that information for your reader. The better you understand a subject or topic, the easier it is to explain it thoroughly and briefly.

7. Write your first draft. For the first draft, focus on content, not length (it will probably be too long). Condense later as needed.

8. Go through the process again, making changes as appropriate until you are satisfied with the summary.

9. Edit for completeness and accuracy. Add information for completeness where necessary. More commonly, if you understand the content of the document, you will need to cut redundant or less important information. Stay focused on the subject or topic, be concise and avoid generalities.

10. Edit for style. Pitch your writing to the level of your intended audience/readership. E.g. Write for an intelligent, interested audience. Expect your readers to be interested, but don’t make them struggle to understand you. Include all the important details; don’t assume that they are already understood.

11. Edit for good English usage and grammar. Ensure correct punctuation and grammar, eliminate wordiness and use specific, precise, concrete language – avoid vague references. If applicable, use scientifically accurate language and the appropriate lexicon (subject-specific terminology). Rely primarily on paraphrasing, not direct quotes.

12. Proofread and re-read what you have written. Ask others to read it to catch things that you’ve missed.

How to use the Apostrophe correctly

How to use the Apostrophe correctly

by | 9 Feb 2019 | Grammar

How to use the Apostrophe correctly

The apostrophe (’) is one of the hardest working punctuation marks in the English language. Not surprisingly, it’s also one of the most misused. Apostrophes can be confusing even for native speakers of English, but they aren’t difficult to master if you can remember a few apostrophe rules.

Debate has raged among grammarians over some of its more esoteric uses, but the rules for its two most important functions (possession and omission) are pretty clear. Apostrophes in English serve two basic functions; they show possession, and they indicate that letters have been removed from the original words in the process of forming a contraction (omission). They are not necessary for forming plural nouns or possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, their, our, its).

1.a. Possession

This is what most of us call ‘apostrophe s’, and it is used to indicate that something or someone owns or possesses something or someone.

For example, if John owns a dog we would describe his pet like this: John’s dog. Another example: Mr Jones’s car.

Note that the apostrophe goes before the ‘s’. This is what you do with a singular noun.

When the noun is plural and ends in an ‘s’ on the end, the apostrophe goes after the ‘s’: E.g. Editors’ stress levels are dangerously high.

Use an apostrophe after the ‘s’ at the end of a plural noun to show possession. More examples: The parents’ bedroom; the Joneses’ home (the family Jones).

It is not necessary to add another ‘s’ to the end of a plural noun after the apostrophe. If a plural noun doesn’t end in ‘s’, add an ‘s’ after the apostrophe to create the possessive form. E.g. The children’s school uniforms.

Remember, a possessive noun needs an apostrophe and an ‘s at the end. If there’s already an ‘s’ there, you can just add the apostrophe. If there’s no ‘s’, you have to add both – first the apostrophe, and then the ‘s’. 

Special Cases and Variations

Some writers and editors add only an apostrophe (’) to all nouns ending in ‘s’. E.g. Mr Harris’; the class’ lunch break.  This practice is not recommended.

And some add an apostrophe + ‘s’ to every proper noun, be it Mrs Hastings’s or Mr Jones’s.

One method, common in newspapers and magazines, is to add an apostrophe + ‘s’ (‘s) to common nouns ending in ‘s’, but only a stand­alone apostrophe to proper nouns ending in ‘s’.

E.g.  The glass’s shelves;  Mr Jones’ brown shoes.

A special case is a singular noun that ends in ‘s’.  E.g. Ross’s red car.

While there are writers who add just an apostrophe to show singular possession of a name ending in ‘s’ or ‘z’. It is recommended for good grammar’s sake, to add another ‘s’. Exceptions to this rule are for biblical names and words. E.g. Jesus’.

E.g. Bill Williams’ car OR Bill Williams’s car; Mrs. Sanchez’s children OR Mrs Sanchez’ children.

To show plural possession of a name ending in ‘s’, ‘ch’, or ‘z’, form the plural first; then immediately use the apostrophe.

E.g. The Williamses’ car; the Birches’ house; the Sanchezes’ children.

1.b  Possessive Pronouns

Sometimes, however, possession does not require an apostrophe. This is when possessive pronouns are used. A pronoun is a word that stands in for a noun, such as ‘I’ or ‘you’. The possessive pronouns are my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs

All these words indicate possession, some of them end in ‘s’, but none, I repeat, none of them ever need an apostrophe. Not once, ever!

E.g. That book is hers. These magazines are ours. That DVD is yours, but its owner doesn’t want it.

2. Omission

An apostrophe has long been used to indicate that some letters have been omitted from a word. The word ‘it’s’ is an example of a contraction. That is, two words have been contracted to form one, in this case ‘it’ and ‘is’. E.g. It’s time to make a decision.

Other examples are:

They’re (they are), we’re (we are); they’ll (they will), you’re (you are); they’ve (they have); aren’t (are not).

The one exception to this rule is the contraction ‘won’t’, which is ‘will + not’.

Apostrophes can also be used to indicate that some letters have been left out of a single word:

E.g. Can’t (cannot); Jo’burg (Johannesburg).

Final Thoughts

Don’t lose the battle of the apostrophe. First, ask yourself if the word owns or possesses something. If the answer is yes, check whether it’s a noun or a possessive pronoun. If it’s a noun, it needs an apostrophe. If it’s a pronoun, disregard all urges, however strong, to put an apostrophe in it. If the word doesn’t own anything, have a look to see if there are any letters missing, and put the apostrophe where the missing letters should go. The key is to think about how the word is used and what the apostrophe is for, and you’ll be the winner.